Table 2.1. Trends in the Human Use of Ecosystem Services and Enhancement or Degradation of the Service Around the Year 2000 - Cultural services

Legend

	= Increasing (for Human Use column) or enhanced (for Enhanced or Degraded column)
	= Decreasing (for Human Use column) or degraded (for Enhanced or Degraded column)
	= Mixed (trend increases and decreases over past 50 years or some components/regions increase while others decrease

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Provisioning services

Regulating services

Supporting services

Service	Human Use (a)	Enhanced or Degraded (b)	Notes
Cultural services
Cultural diversity	NA	NA
Spiritual and religious values			There has been a decline in the numbers of sacred groves and other such protected areas. The loss of particular ecosystem attributes (sacred species or sacred forests), combined with social and economic changes, can sometimes weaken the spiritual benefits people obtain from ecosystems. On the other hand, under some circumstances (e.g., where ecosystem attributes are causing significant threats to people), the loss of some attributes may enhance spiritual appreciation for what remains. (C17.2.3)
Knowledge systems	NA	NA
Educational values	NA	NA
Inspiration	NA	NA
Aesthetic values			The demand for aesthetically pleasing natural landscapes has increased in accordance with increased urbanization. There has been a decline in quantity and quality of areas to meet this demand. A reduction in the availability of and access to natural areas for urban residents may have important detrimental effects on public health and economies. (C17.2.5)
Social relations	NA	NA
Sense of place	NA	NA
Cultural heritage values	NA	NA
Recreation and ecotourism			The demand for recreational use of landscapes is increasing, and areas are increasingly being managed to cater for this use, to reflect changing cultural values and perceptions. However, many naturally occurring features of the landscape (e.g., coral reefs) have been degraded as resources for recreation. (C17.2.6, C19.??)

* = Low to medium certainty. All other trends are medium to high certainty.

NA = Not assessed within the MA. In some cases, the service was not addressed at all in the MA (such as ornamental resources), while in other cases the service was included but the information and data available did not allow an assessment of the pattern of human use of the service or the status of the service.

† = The categories of “Human Benefit” and “Enhanced or Degraded” do not apply for supporting services since, by definition, these services are not directly used by people. (Their costs or benefits would be double-counted if the indirect effects were included). Changes in supporting services influence the supply of provisioning, cultural, or regulating services that are then used by people and may be enhanced or degraded.

a For provisioning services, human use increases if the human consumption of the service increases (e.g., greater food consumption); for regulating and cultural services, human use increases if the number of people affected by the service increases.  The time frame is in general the past 50 years, although if the trend has changed within that time frame the indicator shows the most recent trend.

b For provisioning services, we define enhancement to mean increased production of the service through changes in area over which the service is provided (e.g., spread of agriculture) or increased production per unit area. We judge the production to be degraded if the current use exceeds sustainable levels. For regulating and supporting services, enhancement refers to a change in the service that leads to greater benefits for people (e.g., the service of disease regulation could be improved by eradication of a vector known to transmit a disease to people). Degradation of a regulating and supporting services means a reduction in the benefits obtained from the service, either through a change in the service (e.g., mangroves loss reducing the storm protection benefits of an ecosystem) or through human pressures on the service exceeding its limits (e.g., excessive pollution exceeding the capability of ecosystems to maintain water quality). For cultural services, enhancement refers to a change in the ecosystem features that increase the cultural (recreational, aesthetic, spiritual, etc.) benefits provided by the ecosystem. The time frame is in general the past 50 years, although if the trend has changed within that time frame the indicator shows the most recent trend.

Source: MA
  Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis (2005), p.33-37