Level 3 - Source on Water Disinfectants

• 1. What disinfectants and by-products are we talking about?
  • 1.1 Why is there concern about water disinfectants?
  • 1.2 How are disinfectant by-products formed?
  • 1.3 What are the most relevant disinfectant by-products?
  • 1.4 How can the amount of disinfectant by-products be reduced?
• 2. What happens to disinfectants and their by-products when ingested or inhaled?
  • 2.1 Kinetics and metabolism of disinfectants
  • 2.2 Kinetics and metabolism of chlorine by-products
  • 2.3 Kinetics and metabolism of chlorine dioxide by-products
  • 2.4 Kinetics and metabolism of ozonation by-products
• 3. How can disinfectants and their by-products affect health?
  • 3.1 Disinfectants toxicology
  • 3.2 Chlorine by-products toxicology
  • 3.3 Chlorine dioxide by-products toxicology
  • 3.4 Ozonation by-products toxicology
• 4. Have disinfectants and their by-products affected human health?
  • 4.1 Has water disinfection caused cardiovascular disease or cancer?
  • 4.2 Has water disinfection harmed pregnancies?
• 5. What are the risks posed by disinfectants and their by-products?
  • 5.1 What tolerable daily intakes and guideline values has the WHO set?
  • 5.2 How much disinfectants and by-products are we exposed to?
  • 5.3 Are there uncertainties in assessing exposure?
  • 5.4 Have epidemiological studies been able to evaluate the risks?
• 6. Conclusions